Virtopsy: the image of crime. Review article
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Published:
Apr 22, 2025
Keywords:
Virtopsy, virtual autopsy, postmortem imaging, postmortem computed tomography, digital forensic medicine
Main Article Content
Abstract
Introduction. Technological development has changed various areas, with forensic medicine being one of the most favoured. Recently, imaging and radiology techniques have transformed post-mortem investigation, offering precise and less invasive options than conventional autopsy. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed axial tomography (CAT) have become established as fundamental tools in the evaluation of bodies, allowing detailed images to be obtained without the need for destructive procedures. These innovations have given rise to virtopsy, a methodology that integrates several specialties to improve documentation and analysis in the forensic field. Objective. Analyze the impact of virtopsy as a novel technique in forensic medicine, identifying unobservable lesions and alterations, to support scientific diagnoses within the judicial context. Methodology. This study was conducted as a synthetic analytical research review based on the use of imaging techniques in forensic medicine, analyzing advantages, applications, and progress in judicial fields. Searches were performed in indexed databases such as Google Scholar and PubMed, and the Zotero software was used to manage the bibliographies. Results. A total of 25 articles were reviewed, highlighting relevant topics on virtopsy, which is an effective and complementary alternative to traditional autopsy, allowing a detailed analysis of the body without invasive intervention and facilitating the collection and storage of digital evidence. Conclusion. Virtopsy represents a meaningful change in forensic medicine. Its non-invasive nature, the ability to store digital evidence, and its use on post-mortem bodies as well as living individuals make it an invaluable tool for criminal investigation. With the advancement of this technology, it is likely that virtopsy will become established as the standard method for conducting autopsies in the future. General Area of Study: Medicine. Specific area of study: Forensic medicine. Type of study: Review article.
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How to Cite
Costales Montalvo, B. P., & Robalino Larrea, F. (2025). Virtopsy: the image of crime. Review article. Anatomía Digital, 8(2), 26-47. https://doi.org/10.33262/anatomiadigital.v8i2.3392
Section
Articulos de revisión bibliográfica
References
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2. Escobar López KY. Las ciencias forenses y la innovación tecnológica. Gaceta Internacional de Ciencias Forenses [Internet]. 2020 [citado 15 enero 2025]; (34):10-25. Disponible en: https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=7181815
3. García-Robelto AN, Betín-Isaza A, Gil-Villa AM. Virtopsia. Su pertinencia como herramienta de apoyo judicial en Colombia. Revista Memorias Forenses [Internet]. 2020 [citado 15 enero 2025]; (3):45-58. Disponible en: https://ojs.tdea.edu.co/index.php/mforenses/article/view/675/821
4. Dirnhofer R, Jackowski C, Vock P, Potter K, Thali M. Virtopsy: Minimally Invasive, Imaging-guided Virtual Autopsy. Radiological Society of North America [Internet]. 2006[cited 2025 January 15]; 26(5). Available from: https://pubs.rsna.org/doi/abs/10.1148/rg.265065001
5. Bolliger SA, Thali MJ, Ross S, Buck U, Naether S, Vock P. Virtual autopsy using imaging: bridging radiologic and forensic sciences. A review of the Virtopsy and similar projects. European Journal of Radiology [Internet]. 2008 [cited 2025 January 15];18(2):273-282. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17705044/
6. Bolliger SA, Thali MJ. Imaging and virtual autopsy: looking back and forward. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Science [Internet]. 2015[cited 2025 January 15]; 370(1674):20140253. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26101279/
7. Rüegger CM, Gascho D, Bode PK, Bruder E, Haslinger C, Ross S, et al. Post-mortem magnetic resonance imaging with computed tomography-guided biopsy for foetuses and infants: a prospective, multicentre, cross-sectional study. BMC Pediatrics [Internet]. 2022[cited 2025 January 15]; 22(1): 464. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35918685/
8. Ahmad MU, Sharif KA, Qayyum H, Ehsanullah B, Balyasnikova S, Wale A, et al. Assessing the use of magnetic resonance imaging virtopsy as an alternative to autopsy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Postgraduate Medical Journal [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2025 January 15]; 93(1105):671-678. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28684530/
9. Gallego Londoño C, Afanador Restrepo DF, Dávila Castañeda MC, Andrade Ramírez S. La evolución de la Virtopsia, las ventajas frente a la autopsia y el impacto en el área de la salud: Una scoping review. Journal of Health and Medical Sciences [Internet]. 2024 [citado 15 enero 2025]; 10(3):11-20. Disponible en: https://revistas.uta.cl/pdf/3145/02-gallegook%20%20rev.10.3.pdf
10. Jalalzadeh H, Giannakopoulos GF, Berger FH, Fronczek J, van de Goot FRW, Reijnders UJ, Zuidema WP. Post-mortem imaging compared with autopsy in trauma victims--A systematic review. Forensic Science International [Internet]. 2015[cited 2025 January 15]; 257: 29-48. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26284976/
11. Westphal SE, Apitzsch J, Penzkofer T, Mahnken AH, Knüchel R. Virtual CT autopsy in clinical pathology: feasibility in clinical autopsies. Virchow’s Archive: An International Journal of Pathology [Internet]. 2012 [cited 2025 January 15]; 461(2):211-9. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22729140/
12. Wichmann D, Heinemann A, Weinberg C, Vogel H, Hoepker WW, Grabherr S, et al. Virtual autopsy with multiphase postmortem computed tomographic angiography versus traditional medical autopsy to investigate unexpected deaths of hospitalized patients: a cohort study. Annals of Internal Medicine [Internet]. 2014 [cited 2025 January 15]; 160(8):534-541. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24733194/
13. Greene AC, Mankarious MM, Patel A, Matzelle-Zywicki M, Kwon EG, Reyes L, et al. Can magnetic resonance imaging replace computed tomography scans in the evaluation of pediatric post-appendectomy abscess? Surgery [Internet]. 2023 [cited 2025 January 15]; 174(3):703-708. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37365084/
14. Gallo R. Relevancia de la virtopsia como método de inspección corporal no invasivo en las Ciencias Forenses. Instituto Universitario de Ciencias de la Salud. Fundación Barceló [Internet]. 2023 [citado 15 enero 2025]. Disponible en: https://repositorio.barcelo.edu.ar/greenstone/collect/tesis/index/assoc/HASH0193.dir/BRC_Tesis_GalloRoberto.pdf
15. Loaiza GAM, Daza AFO, Archila GA. Aplicaciones de la radiología convencional en el campo de la medicina forense. Revista Colombiana de Radiología [Internet]. 2013[citado 15 enero 2025]; 24(4): 3805-3810. Disponible en: https://repository.javeriana.edu.co/items/e2180a8a-a1bf-4b76-9cca-ee010636ed80
16. Najar Céspedes AP. Virtopsia. Radiología en medicina forense. Salud Areandina [Internet]. 2012[citado 15 enero 2025];1(1):60-76. Disponible en: https://revia.areandina.edu.co/index.php/Nn/article/view/311/340
17. Garrido Benito B, Illán Riquelme A, Sánchez Corral J, Ots Gutiérrez JR, Oliver García I. Herida penetrante por arma blanca. Revista Chilena de Cirugía [Internet]. 2017 [citado 15 enero 2025]; 69(6):436-437. Disponible en: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S037938931730039X?via%3Dihub
18. Albarrán ME, Sánchez JA. Lesiones por arma blanca: lesiones, diagnóstico y problemas médico-legales. Revista Universidad Complutense de Madrid [Internet]. 2019 [citado 15 enero 2025]. Disponible en: https://www.ucm.es/data/cont/docs/107-2017-12-06-Tema%202.%20Lesiones%20originadas%20por%20armas%20blancas.pdf
19. Grabherr S, Baumann P, Minoiu C, Fahrni S, Mangin P. Post-mortem imaging in forensic investigations: current utility, limitations, and ongoing developments. Research and Reports in Forensic Medical Science [Internet]. 2024 [cited 2025 January 15]; Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/298725645_Post-mortem_imaging_in_forensic_investigations_current_utility_limitations_and_ongoing_developments
20. Decker LA, Hatch GM, Lathrop SL, Nolte KB. The role of postmortem computed tomography in the evaluation of strangulation deaths. Journal of Forensic Sciences [Internet]. 2018[cited 2025 January 15]; 63(5):1401-1405. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29464693/
21. Gascho D, Heimer J, Thali MJ, Flach PM. The value of MRI for assessing danger to life in nonfatal strangulation. Forensic Imaging [Internet]. 2020[cited 2025 January 15]; 22:200398. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666225620300476
22. Levy AD, Harcke T, Getz JM, Mallak JL, Caruso JL, Pearse L, et al. Virtual Autopsy: Two- and three-dimensional multidetector CT findings in drowning with autopsy comparison. Radiological Society of North America [Internet]. 2007 [cited 2025 January 15]; 243(3). Available from: https://pubs.rsna.org/doi/abs/10.1148/radiol.2433061009
23. Flach PM, Gascho D, Ruder TD, Franckenberg S, Ross SG, Ebner L, et al. Postmortem and forensic magnetic resonance imaging, in: imaging of the pelvis, musculoskeletal system, and special applications to CAD. CRC Press [Internet]. 2016[cited 2025 January 15]. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301301238_Postmortem_and_Forensic_Magnetic_Resonance_Imaging_in_Imaging_of_the_Pelvis_Musculoskeletal_System_and_Special_Applications_to_CAD
24. Ruder TD, Thali MJ, Hatch GM. Essentials of forensic post-mortem MR imaging in adults. The British Journal of Radiology [Internet]. 2014[cited 2025 January 15]; 87(1036):20130567. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24191122/
25. Zech WD, Ruder TD. Blunt force trauma in forensic radiology. Radiology (Heidelber Germany) [Internet]. 2024[cited 2025 January 15]; 64(11):837-845. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39320448/
2. Escobar López KY. Las ciencias forenses y la innovación tecnológica. Gaceta Internacional de Ciencias Forenses [Internet]. 2020 [citado 15 enero 2025]; (34):10-25. Disponible en: https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=7181815
3. García-Robelto AN, Betín-Isaza A, Gil-Villa AM. Virtopsia. Su pertinencia como herramienta de apoyo judicial en Colombia. Revista Memorias Forenses [Internet]. 2020 [citado 15 enero 2025]; (3):45-58. Disponible en: https://ojs.tdea.edu.co/index.php/mforenses/article/view/675/821
4. Dirnhofer R, Jackowski C, Vock P, Potter K, Thali M. Virtopsy: Minimally Invasive, Imaging-guided Virtual Autopsy. Radiological Society of North America [Internet]. 2006[cited 2025 January 15]; 26(5). Available from: https://pubs.rsna.org/doi/abs/10.1148/rg.265065001
5. Bolliger SA, Thali MJ, Ross S, Buck U, Naether S, Vock P. Virtual autopsy using imaging: bridging radiologic and forensic sciences. A review of the Virtopsy and similar projects. European Journal of Radiology [Internet]. 2008 [cited 2025 January 15];18(2):273-282. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17705044/
6. Bolliger SA, Thali MJ. Imaging and virtual autopsy: looking back and forward. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Science [Internet]. 2015[cited 2025 January 15]; 370(1674):20140253. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26101279/
7. Rüegger CM, Gascho D, Bode PK, Bruder E, Haslinger C, Ross S, et al. Post-mortem magnetic resonance imaging with computed tomography-guided biopsy for foetuses and infants: a prospective, multicentre, cross-sectional study. BMC Pediatrics [Internet]. 2022[cited 2025 January 15]; 22(1): 464. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35918685/
8. Ahmad MU, Sharif KA, Qayyum H, Ehsanullah B, Balyasnikova S, Wale A, et al. Assessing the use of magnetic resonance imaging virtopsy as an alternative to autopsy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Postgraduate Medical Journal [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2025 January 15]; 93(1105):671-678. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28684530/
9. Gallego Londoño C, Afanador Restrepo DF, Dávila Castañeda MC, Andrade Ramírez S. La evolución de la Virtopsia, las ventajas frente a la autopsia y el impacto en el área de la salud: Una scoping review. Journal of Health and Medical Sciences [Internet]. 2024 [citado 15 enero 2025]; 10(3):11-20. Disponible en: https://revistas.uta.cl/pdf/3145/02-gallegook%20%20rev.10.3.pdf
10. Jalalzadeh H, Giannakopoulos GF, Berger FH, Fronczek J, van de Goot FRW, Reijnders UJ, Zuidema WP. Post-mortem imaging compared with autopsy in trauma victims--A systematic review. Forensic Science International [Internet]. 2015[cited 2025 January 15]; 257: 29-48. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26284976/
11. Westphal SE, Apitzsch J, Penzkofer T, Mahnken AH, Knüchel R. Virtual CT autopsy in clinical pathology: feasibility in clinical autopsies. Virchow’s Archive: An International Journal of Pathology [Internet]. 2012 [cited 2025 January 15]; 461(2):211-9. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22729140/
12. Wichmann D, Heinemann A, Weinberg C, Vogel H, Hoepker WW, Grabherr S, et al. Virtual autopsy with multiphase postmortem computed tomographic angiography versus traditional medical autopsy to investigate unexpected deaths of hospitalized patients: a cohort study. Annals of Internal Medicine [Internet]. 2014 [cited 2025 January 15]; 160(8):534-541. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24733194/
13. Greene AC, Mankarious MM, Patel A, Matzelle-Zywicki M, Kwon EG, Reyes L, et al. Can magnetic resonance imaging replace computed tomography scans in the evaluation of pediatric post-appendectomy abscess? Surgery [Internet]. 2023 [cited 2025 January 15]; 174(3):703-708. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37365084/
14. Gallo R. Relevancia de la virtopsia como método de inspección corporal no invasivo en las Ciencias Forenses. Instituto Universitario de Ciencias de la Salud. Fundación Barceló [Internet]. 2023 [citado 15 enero 2025]. Disponible en: https://repositorio.barcelo.edu.ar/greenstone/collect/tesis/index/assoc/HASH0193.dir/BRC_Tesis_GalloRoberto.pdf
15. Loaiza GAM, Daza AFO, Archila GA. Aplicaciones de la radiología convencional en el campo de la medicina forense. Revista Colombiana de Radiología [Internet]. 2013[citado 15 enero 2025]; 24(4): 3805-3810. Disponible en: https://repository.javeriana.edu.co/items/e2180a8a-a1bf-4b76-9cca-ee010636ed80
16. Najar Céspedes AP. Virtopsia. Radiología en medicina forense. Salud Areandina [Internet]. 2012[citado 15 enero 2025];1(1):60-76. Disponible en: https://revia.areandina.edu.co/index.php/Nn/article/view/311/340
17. Garrido Benito B, Illán Riquelme A, Sánchez Corral J, Ots Gutiérrez JR, Oliver García I. Herida penetrante por arma blanca. Revista Chilena de Cirugía [Internet]. 2017 [citado 15 enero 2025]; 69(6):436-437. Disponible en: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S037938931730039X?via%3Dihub
18. Albarrán ME, Sánchez JA. Lesiones por arma blanca: lesiones, diagnóstico y problemas médico-legales. Revista Universidad Complutense de Madrid [Internet]. 2019 [citado 15 enero 2025]. Disponible en: https://www.ucm.es/data/cont/docs/107-2017-12-06-Tema%202.%20Lesiones%20originadas%20por%20armas%20blancas.pdf
19. Grabherr S, Baumann P, Minoiu C, Fahrni S, Mangin P. Post-mortem imaging in forensic investigations: current utility, limitations, and ongoing developments. Research and Reports in Forensic Medical Science [Internet]. 2024 [cited 2025 January 15]; Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/298725645_Post-mortem_imaging_in_forensic_investigations_current_utility_limitations_and_ongoing_developments
20. Decker LA, Hatch GM, Lathrop SL, Nolte KB. The role of postmortem computed tomography in the evaluation of strangulation deaths. Journal of Forensic Sciences [Internet]. 2018[cited 2025 January 15]; 63(5):1401-1405. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29464693/
21. Gascho D, Heimer J, Thali MJ, Flach PM. The value of MRI for assessing danger to life in nonfatal strangulation. Forensic Imaging [Internet]. 2020[cited 2025 January 15]; 22:200398. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666225620300476
22. Levy AD, Harcke T, Getz JM, Mallak JL, Caruso JL, Pearse L, et al. Virtual Autopsy: Two- and three-dimensional multidetector CT findings in drowning with autopsy comparison. Radiological Society of North America [Internet]. 2007 [cited 2025 January 15]; 243(3). Available from: https://pubs.rsna.org/doi/abs/10.1148/radiol.2433061009
23. Flach PM, Gascho D, Ruder TD, Franckenberg S, Ross SG, Ebner L, et al. Postmortem and forensic magnetic resonance imaging, in: imaging of the pelvis, musculoskeletal system, and special applications to CAD. CRC Press [Internet]. 2016[cited 2025 January 15]. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301301238_Postmortem_and_Forensic_Magnetic_Resonance_Imaging_in_Imaging_of_the_Pelvis_Musculoskeletal_System_and_Special_Applications_to_CAD
24. Ruder TD, Thali MJ, Hatch GM. Essentials of forensic post-mortem MR imaging in adults. The British Journal of Radiology [Internet]. 2014[cited 2025 January 15]; 87(1036):20130567. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24191122/
25. Zech WD, Ruder TD. Blunt force trauma in forensic radiology. Radiology (Heidelber Germany) [Internet]. 2024[cited 2025 January 15]; 64(11):837-845. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39320448/